Pre-arrival
- The cotton tip of the swab was gently stroked five times each over the ventral surfaces of the thighs, tibia, ventrum and webbing of the frog, which was then released at the point of capture. Re-sampling of the same individual was avoided by keeping individuals in separate bags and postponing swabbing until all frogs had been captured. (Tarrant et al., 2013)
- Given there is no need to recapture, a field use device won't be of much aid in the pre-arrival stage of infectious disease except for researchers' (assessing entities') convenience.
- For human health, the World Health Organisation (WHO) was created to be the international body that assumes responsibility for setting standards and organizing responses when human populations are threatened by disease, but no such organization exists for wildlife.
- The first implementation of import controls that could prevent the spread of Bsal in North America occurred in the USA in January 2016, approximately 2 years after the threat from trade was identified (Martel et al. 2014). In total, 201 salamander species were listed as ‘‘injurious’’ to wildlife under the Lacey Act, restricting the importation and interstate movement of species identified as potential Bsal vectors (USFWS 2016). This is an unconventional use of the Lacey Act, a law enacted in 1900 and written to protect nonagricultural ecosystems from the introduction and spread of invasive wildlife species. It was not written for wildlife disease prevention, and this is only the second time the Lacey Act has been implemented to help prevent the spread of a wildlife pathogen (18 U.S.C. 42: 50 CFR §16.13;. Previous efforts to apply the Lacey Act to protect amphibians from Bd in the have failed.
- In May 2017, Canada amended its Wild Animal and Plant Trade Regulations to restrict all salamander imports (SOR/2017-86). These policy actions are important for amphibian conservation; however, several years passed before they were implemented, during which time Bsal could have been introduced through ongoing trade. The current lack of legislation in many countries to address wildlife EID threats can limit the rapid response needed to mitigate wildlife disease spread.
- After the first pandemic, with the threat of Bsal, there has been a quicker global response with proactive management in hopes of preventing a second wave of amphibian declines and extinctions (Grant et l., 2017)
- Laws, treaties and regulations in place in the US:
https://www.fws.gov/permits/ltr/ltr.html
https://www.fws.gov/permits/ltr/ltr.html
</div>Unmapped stakeholders
- In December 2015, the European Council recommended immediate salamander trade restrictions, pre-import screening for infectious diseases in live animal trade, the establishment of monitoring and surveillance programs, the application of biosafety rules in the field and in captive collections, and the development of emergency action plans (Standing Committee to the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 2015). (Yap et al., 2017)
- Although the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates the trade of endangered species, implementation of the regulations and commitments held by CITES is not consistent among participating countries (Wyler and Sheikh 2013). In addition, there is substantial trade in non-listed or less protected wildlife species, but regulation of these species in trade is fragmented with many challenges, including gaps in policy and legal frameworks, a lack of international consensus of specific regulations often eroded by competing priorities, and limited resources to implement regulations (Wyler and Sheikh 2013; Langwig et al. 2015).
- kantoor@ravon.nl
- RAVON is a professional organization concerned with the conservation of reptiles, amphibians and freshwater fish. We are one of several non-governmental organizations (NGO) engaged in the conservation of the Dutch flora and fauna. RAVON operates independently, but also collaborates on projects.
- They also were hosting the now defunct tracking website
- Response by some countries https://www.natuurpunt.be/salamanders-and-batrachochytrium-salamandrivorans
- In March 2017, the European Food and Safety Authority (EFSA) published a scientific report suggesting feasible mitigation measures in the EU, including restricting salamander movements, requiring animals to be free of Bsal before movement can take place, quarantining salamanders, tracking all traded species, and increasing public awareness (Bala` zˇ et al. 2017).
- Potential insight into surveillance measures
- In North America, the Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation formed the National Disease Task Team in January 2015 to facilitate the development of a Bsal strategic plan for the USA (Gray et al. 2015).
- In March 2015, the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative recommended import controls and initiating surveillance programs (Stephen et al. 2015). Then, in June 2015, the Bsal Task Force was formed (Gray et al. 2015; Grant et al. 2016). This ad hoc group is comprised of individuals from federal and state agencies, universities, and non-governmental organizations that are pooling their resources and knowledge to prevent and/or mitigate the spread of Bsal into naive populations in North America. The Task Force is leading regional efforts to implement a targeted surveillance strategy, standardize diagnostic techniques, establish laboratory methods for containment and disposal of Bsal, conduct prioritized research to better understand species susceptibility, develop intervention strategies to aid in species survival, develop response plans for Bsal containment and management, and identify pathways of introduction and transmission to inform management actions. They have created an amphibian disease web portal (https://amphibiandisease.org) to aggregate and share information quickly, with the goal of helping scientists optimize research and monitoring efforts and to facilitate a rapid response to Bsal crises. The system maintains data confidentiality, allowing investigators to retain intellectual property while expediting the release of emerging critical information and encouraging collaborations.
Field Notes: Predicting how the pet trade spreads infectious disease
The legal commercial exotic animal trade is a booming enterprise that ships ornamental fish, mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians around the world. These pets, livestock and other animals can carry unexpected infectious diseases from their homelands. If these non-native species escape or are released to the wild, they can create epidemics among susceptible endemic wildlife.
https://news.mongabay.com/2017/02/field-notes-predicting-how-the-pet-trade-spreads-infectious-disease/
References